indian knowledge system subject notes nep bsc ba bcom bcs iks notes
Ancient wisdom of gurukul. Imagine going to school in a forest, living with your guru or teacher, and learning through practical experiences. That was the essence of the ancient gurukul system. Students, known as brahmachārīs, learned a way of life from the age of 8 or 12 until they were 25. The education was totally through orals and debates.
Curriculam :- Education wasn't confined to textbooks. It covered everything from the sacred Vedas to archery, astronomy, and medicine,. Learning was interactive, with skill development, discussions, debates, and storytelling playing a key role. The lively debates under a banyan tree and the joy of learning with fellow students feel worlds apart from the lonely confinement of textbooks.
Methods of learning
The teachers at that time paid special focus to their students and teach them according to their knowledge and skill level. Teaching was basically via orals and debates, and the different methods were as follows:
At that time books were not there, so students had the habit to learn and memorize all the things taught in the class, and teachers also helped them in memorizing.
The teachers used the storytelling methods to teach the
6. Ujjaini University
One university that simply stands out for its academic output in astronomy and mathematics is Ujjaini (also called Ujjain), which was equipped with an elaborate observatory and stood on the zero meridians of longitude of those times. Brahmagupta was among the most celebrated astronomers of Ujjaini university who continued the tradition of Varahamihira and made significant contributions to mathematics.
7.Valabhi university :- It was the capital of the Maitraka empire. It is located in Vallabhipur, Bhavnagar district of present day Gujarat. It was the schools for Hinayana Buddhism.
The other main subjects taught at the university were Statesmanship, Economics, Book-keeping, Business and Agriculture.
8. Jagaddala University
The Jaggadala Vihara in Varendrabhumi (now Bangladesh) was also an important centre of learning in the early 11th century. It was established by the king Kampala
According to Tibetan works, it was at Jagaddala where many sacred Sanskrit texts were translated into the Tibetan language
9.Kanthalloor Shala
Kanthalloor shala was a temple university situated in Trivendram. Cholas were the patrons of this university. It was known as the Nalanda of South. The Kanthalloor Shala was once a famous center of knowledge and due to the quality of education provided by this ancient university, it attracted scholars from other parts of India and Sri Lanka.
10.Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth
It was named after famous Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna. Vidyapeeth was situated in South India on the banks of the Krishna river.
Its library housed on the top floor of the five story building had an enormous collection of the Buddhist philosophy, science and medicine.
The enormity of the collection is borne out by the fact that it not only had works on the Buddhist literature, but also on several branches of scientific knowledge, such as, Botany, Geography, Mineralogy and Medicine.
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Unit 2/module 2 :- Indian philosophical systems
Point 2.1. Theist systems : (Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Purva nd Uttar Meemansa ) Nature, Concept and Literature
Darshanas are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas.For many centuries, Indian thinkers have spoken of the ṣaḍ darśana, or “six views” on reality.They are part of the six scriptures of the indian ancient sanatan teachings, the other five being Shrutis, Smritis,Itihasas, puranas and Agamas. While the first four are intuitional( relating to nature), and the fifth are inspirational and emotional. The Darshanas are the intellectual sections of the ancient indian i.e. Hindu writings. The Darshana literature is philosophical in nature and meant for the erudite(who have deep study) scholars who are endowed(prosper) with acumen(who is having great grasping/learning power), understanding, and intellect. While the Itihasas, Puranas, and Agamas are meant for the masses and appeal to the heart, the Darshanas appeal to the intellect.
The meaning of darśana, more relevant to our discussion here, is a specific system of ideas used to perceive reality: that is, a perspective or worldview.The ṣaḍ darśanas, according to this categorization, are Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṃsā (Pūrva Mīmāṃsā), and Vedānta (Uttara Mīmāṃsā).
Philosophy Originator
1. Sankhya Kapila
2. Yoga Patanjali
3. Nyaya Gautama
4. Vaisheshika Kanada
5. Purva Mimansa Jamini
6. Uttar Mimansa Badrayana
or Vedanta / Shankara
1.1)sankhya darshan :- Sāṃkhya is a very ancient system of thought, traced to the sage Kāpila (for whom the city of the Buddha’s upbringing, Kāpilavastu, was named). Sāṃkhya is dualistic. It affirms, in other words, that there are two fundamental types of thing making up reality. These are puruṣa, or spirit, and prakṛti, meaning nature or materiality. There are as many puruṣas as there are living beings. They are numerically many. Their nature, however, is one; and this nature is pure consciousness.
The puruṣas passively observe the operations of active prakṛti, or material nature. Prakṛti is in constant motion, and oscillates through three modes of being, or guṇas. These guṇas, or qualities, are known as sattva, rajas, and tamas. Rajas is the active quality. It could be translated as dynamism. Tamas is inertia. Sattva is a peaceful state of equilibrium between these two. From a spiritual perspective, to be tamasic is the worst state to cultivate, in which one makes no progress, nor has any interest in doing so. A tamasic person–one in whom this quality is predominant–could be called a spiritual “couch potato.” The predominance of rajas causes one to be very active in the world: a better state than tamas, but nonetheless one in need of transcendence.
The best of the guṇas is sattva, a calm but alert state in which one can view reality with more objectivity than the desire-driven states of rajas and tamas. Even sattva, though, is to be transcended; for the ultimate goal of Sāṃkhya philosophy is the liberation of the puruṣa.
1.2. Yog darshan/ yoga darshana:- Yoga does affirm the existence of Īśvara, which it defines as a puruṣa that has never been bound to prakṛti. Īśvara is an ever free being; and contemplation of Īśvara (Īśvarapraṇidhāna) is one of the practices that the Yoga system commends for the attainment of liberation. Maharshi PATANJALI is the precher of yog darshan and ADOYOGI SHIV MAHADEV is the founder of yog.
Yoga could be seen as a practice built upon the Sāṃkhya theory of the nature of reality. The Yoga darśana accepts the Sāṃkhya worldview, but adds to this worldview an eight-step or eight-limbed (aṣṭāṅga) system of practice for the purpose of liberating puruṣa from prakṛti.
These eight steps, as enumerated by the sage Patañjali in his Yoga Sūtra, the root text of this system, are yama, niyama, āsana, prāṇayama, pratyāhāra, dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi.
Yama and Niyama are ethical restraints which one must master before one even begins the process of meditation. The yamas are nonviolence (ahiṃsā), telling the truth (satya), not stealing (asteya), self-control in all areas of life, especially in the area of sexuality (brahmacarya), and detachment (aparigraha).
The niyamas are purity (śauca), contentment (santoṣa), asceticism (tapas), study, including self-study ( svādhyāya), and the aforementioned contemplation of Īśvara (īśvarapraṇidhāna).
Āsana is the posture in which one practices meditation.Patañjali tells us that the only absolute requirements for posture are that one be in a clean and comfortable place and that one keep one’s back straight (to aid breathing).
Prāṇayama is control of the breath.
Pratyāhāra is control of one’s response to external stimuli.
Dhāraṇā consists of concentration on a single object, which is a preparation for Dhyāna, or meditation.
1.3. Nyaya darshan:- Nyāya is a system of logic and a theory of knowledge. Ngata is Developed by the great hindu sage Gautama Rushi.
Nyāya is focused primarily upon establishing a firm foundation for knowledge. How do we know what we know? How do we support the truth claims that we make?
In Indian philosophy a basis for making a knowledge claim is called a pramāṇa.
One principle of Indian philosophy accepted by all schools is that, when one is debating with an adherent of another darśana, one should only use pramāṇas that the other accepts.
In order to be persuasive, one would need to cite sensory experience or inferential logic–both.
Nyāya accepts four pramāṇas: sensory perception ( pratyakṣa), inferential logic (anumāna), comparison (upamāna), and “word” (śabda), which is the speech of an authoritative person or text (such as the Vedas).
Indian philosophy has embraced the concept of zero or shunya at one end of the spectrum to anantha, infinity, at the other end. The global spread of theses ideas allowed intellectuals around the world to further develop science.
Albert Einstein once said: “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.”
What are those revolutionary concepts? Bharath Gyan, a passionate research initiative, is painstakingly dotting the pieces together, foraging amongst lost remnants to keep the glorious past alive and known.
Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinen from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, Varāhamihira, and Madhava.
The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student.
The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the Yajurvedasaṃhitā- (1200–900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts. The Satapatha Brahmana (c. 7th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras
The earliest surviving Sanskrit references to mathematical subjects are some number words in the Vedas, ancient sacred texts that were passed down by recitation and memorization. (The oldest surviving Veda manuscript dates from the 16th century.) For example, an invocation in the Yajurveda (“Veda of Sacrifice”) includes names for successive powers of 10 up to about 10 to the power 12.
List of Indian mathematicians from Ancient India:-
1)Katyayana
Born: Around 300 BC
Notable Work: Varttika, Vyakarana, later Sulba Sutras
2)Pingala
born: Around 500 BC
Notable Work: Matrameru, binary numeral system, arithmetical triangle
3)Aryabhata
Born: Between 476-550 CE
Notable works: Aryabhaṭiya, Arya-siddhanta
Notable Ideas: Explanation of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse, rotation of Earth on its axis,
4)Brahmagupta
Born: Between 598–670 CE
Known for: Zero, Modern number system,
6) Bhaskara I
Born: Between 600–680 CE
Known for: Sine approximation formula
7)Shridhara
Born: Between 650–850 CE
Contribution: Gave a rule for finding the volume of a sphere
8)Mahavira
Born: 9th century CE
Notable Work: His work is a highly syncopated approach to algebra
9)Bhaskara II
Born: 1114–1185 CE
Known for: Discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to astronomical problems and computations
10)Narayana Pandit
Born: Between 1340–1400 CE
Notable Work: Arithmetical treatise called Ganita Kaumudi
4.1.**astronomy in India**
Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. That includes objects we can see with our naked eyes, like the Sun , the Moon , the planets, and the stars .
Ancient India's contributions in the field of astronomy are well known and well documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BC. During next 2500 years, by 500 AD, ancient Indian astronomy has emerged as an important part of Indian studies
astrology in ancient India, science of astronomy continued to develop independently, and culminated into original findings, like:
1.The calculation of occurrences of eclipses
2.Determination of Earth's circumference
3.Theorizing about the theory of gravitation
4.Determining that sun was a star and determination of number of planets under our solar system
There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the Vedas. Yadnavalkya (perhaps 1800 BC) advanced a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon.A text on Vedic astronomy that has been dated to 1350 BC, was written by Lagadha.
In 500 AD, Aryabhata presented a mathematical system that took the earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the sun (in other words it was heliocentric). His book, the Aryabhatya, presented astronomical and mathematical theories in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the sun.
Aryabhata wrote that 1,582,237,500 rotations of the Earth equal 57,753,336 lunar orbits. This is an extremely accurate ratio of a fundamental astronomical ratio (1,582,237,500/57,753,336 = 27.3964693572), and is perhaps the oldest astronomical constant calculated to such accuracy.
Bhaskara (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).
The other important names of historical astronomers from India are Madhava and Nilakantha.
The Rigveda (c1700-1100 BCE), one of Hinduism's primary and foremost texts, contains the first records of sophisticated astronomy in India dating back to at least 2000 BCE.
The ancient Indian astronomers used the stars and planets to create astrological charts and read omens, developing sophisticated mathematical models and many intriguing theories
According to the Rigveda, the Indians divided the year into 360 days, which were then divided into 12 months of 30 days.
The Jyotisa Vedanga, the first Vedic text to mention astronomical data, records events as far back as 4000 BCE, though many archaeo astronomers believe it may include observations as far back as 11 000 BCE.
4.2. Health and Medicinal Practices Introduction to Ayurveda, and lifestyle (Rutucharya, Dincharya , etc.) with reference to Charaka, Sushrut and Vagbhatta
Ancient Indian health and medicinal practices are inclusively belongs to Ayurved. Ayurveda is also called as 5th veda. Dhanvantari is the god of Ayurved or can be called as the god of Indian health and medical science. Many great receive have contributed in Indian health and medicinal practices such as charak, Sushrut and vagbhatt.
Ayurveda is a whole-body (holistic) system of medicine that began in India more than 3,000 years ago. Ayurveda means the study of life. It takes a natural approach to all aspects of health and well-being.
Ayurved is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The ancient Indian medical system, also known as Ayurveda, is based on ancient writings that rely on a “natural” and holistic approach to physical and mental health.
Ayurvedic medicine is one of the world’s oldest medical systems and remains one of India’s traditional health care systems. Ayurvedic treatment combines products (mainly derived from plants, but may also include animal, metal, and mineral), diet, exercise, and lifestyle.
Ayurveda mostly uses nutrition, lifestyle changes, and natural treatments. These are used to support balance and a return to health. Ayurveda is very focused on overall health.
The focus of Ayurveda treatment is to:
1.Support the body in removing toxins and impurities
2.Reduce symptoms
3.Increase disease resistance
4.Reduce stress
5.Create more harmony and balance in life
Herbs and other plants are often used. These include oils and common spices. Ayurvedic treatment is unique for each person. It includes 1 or more of these:
1.Internal cleansing (purification)
2.A special diet, including a wide variety of spices
3.Herbal and plant medicines
4.Massage therapy with different types of oils
5.Yoga
6.Meditation
Introduction:
Ayurveda, often referred to as the "science of life," is an ancient system of medicine that originated in India roughly about 5,000 to 6000 years ago. It is based on the principles of balance and harmony and has stood the test of time as a comprehensive approach to health and wellness.
Ayurveda is based on the concept of the three doshas (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha), panchamahabuta i.e the five elements (earth, water, fire, air, and ether), and the interconnectedness of the body, mind, and spirit. It offers a comprehensive approach to health that includes diet, herbal medicine, lifestyle practices, and therapies to restore and maintain harmony in the body and mind.
Ayurveda has a rich heritage of classical texts, such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, which provide detailed information on diagnosis, treatment, and the principles of this system. It continues to be practiced and respected as a valuable system of medicine and lifestyle in India and around the world. Central to Ayurveda are two key concepts: Dinacharya and Ritucharya. These concepts play a vital role in maintaining a healthy and balanced life
Dinacharya: (Daily Regime)
Dinacharya refers to the daily regimen followed in Ayurveda. The Sanskrit word Dinacharya is defined as "the daily routine". Din means 'daily' and Charya means 'practice or routine. It emphasizes the importance of aligning our daily activities with the natural rhythms of the day. This includes practices like waking up early, cleansing routines, yoga, meditation, and consuming meals at specific times. By following a well-structured daily routine, individuals can maintain physical and mental balance.
The key components of Dinacharya:
1. Waking Early (Brahma Muhurta)–(Vagbhata)
Ayurveda recommends waking up during the Brahma Muhurta, which is the auspicious time about an hour and a half before sunrise.
2. Tongue Cleaning (Jihwa Prakshalana): A daily routine of tongue scraping is essential to remove toxins and bacteria accumulated in the mouth overnight.
3. Oral Hygiene: Ayurveda suggests using natural ingredients like neem twigs or herbal toothpaste for oral care.
4. Nasal Cleansing (Nasya): The practice of administering herbal oils or medicated nasal drops helps maintain sinus health and clear any congestion.
5. Oil Massage (ABHYANGA):Abhyanga / OIL massage should be done daily, as it delays ageing, relieves exertion and excess of vata (aches and pains), it improves vision, nourishes body tissues, prolongs age, induces good sleep and improves skin tone and complexion.
6. Hydration: Drinking a glass of warm water, possibly infused with lemon
7. Physical Exercise (Vyayama): Engaging in regular physical activity is essential for maintaining a healthy body
8. Bathing and Cleansing (Snanam): A refreshing bath in clean water, with the use of natural soaps and herbal scrubs
9. Meditation and Pranayama: Spending time in meditation and practicing pranayama (breathing exercises)
10. Balanced Diet (Ahara): Ayurveda places great importance on a balanced diet consisting of fresh, seasonal, and whole foods.
11. Meal Times (Bhojana Samayam): Ayurveda suggests consuming meals twice a day, preferably during specific time intervals, allowing the body to digest food efficiently.
12. Rest (Anidra Nivaranam): Maintaining proper sleep patterns and ensuring adequate rest is vital for overall well-being.
13. Bedtime Routine (Ratri Jagaranam): Before retiring for the night, perform rituals like self-oil massage (Abhyanga) and introspection to unwind and prepare for a peaceful sleep.
14. Sad vritta (good, Healthy conduct): One should always eat, only after digestion of previous food in limited quantity. one should not induce natural urges forcefully.
**Click here to see the PPT of dincharya and Rutucharya as per Ayurvedic :- Ayurveda dincharya rutucharya
**Ritucharya**
Ritucharya, on the other hand, focuses on adapting one's lifestyle and diet according to the changing seasons. Ayurveda recognizes that the body's requirements vary with each season. For instance, in winter, warming foods and practices are recommended, while in summer, cooling strategies are preferred. This seasonal adaptation helps the body cope with environmental changes and remain in harmony.
There occur some special changes in environment and humans in every Ritu and hence certain foods and exercises are specifically told for each Ritu, this process is known as Ritucharya.
Ritu means dva masa or two months. Since, 2 months make one Ritu, we have 6 Ritus as below:
1.Shishira – Late winter
2.vasanta– Spring
3. Grishma – Summer
4. Varsha – Rains
5. Sarad – Autumn
6. Hemanta – Early winter
The first three Ritus are together called as Adana kala (uttarayana – tilt of northern hemisphere of earth away from the sun) and next three together called as visarga kala (dakshinayana – tilt of southern hemisphere of earth away from the sun).
Point 4.3. Ancient Indian techniques and achievements related to metallurgy and material science.
Vedic Metallurgy: Metallurgy in India For over 7000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical skills. India has a great history of metal work, and smelting of metals and deriving alloys.
India also made great strides in using copper, silver, and was one of the first countries to mine gold.
Tools of iron and steel from ancient India were of great demand for many purposes. It is indicated that the first weapons of steel for the people of the Mediterranean came from India.
Many of the ancient Sanskrit texts contain instructions on metal work, such as the building of furnaces as found in the Brihad-vimana-shastram, or bellows, or the making of metal powders or binders or glue, as in the Rasendra-sara-sangrahah, Shilpa-ratnam, and Rasa-ratna-samucchaya, all from the 9th, 11th and 12th centuries CE.
AThe Atharva Veda mentions the procedure of production of lead shots or granules . the crude way of atomisation of liquid metals. These lead shots were used like bullets for punishing thieves.
According to Will Durant, Hindus seem to have been the first people to mine gold. Greek visitors like Megasthenese have mentioned this in their records. Much of the gold used in the Persian Empire in the 5th century B.C. came from India. India also mined silver, copper, zinc, led, tin and iron. Indians also knew the techniques for isolation, distillation and use of zinc.
Metullergy techniques
Mining & Ingots
It is extremely rare for any metal to be found in a pure state, and therefore mining pulls up a good deal of additional material as a by-product. The first step in metalworking always involves separating the desired metal from the raw
By the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was definitely practiced on a large scale. Smelting. Smelting is the basic process by which one produces workable metal from metal ores.
Cold Hammering
Softer metals, including copper and bronze, can be shaped through cold hammering, especially after they have been smelted to remove impurities.
Wootz steel is primarily iron with a high proportion of carbon .The basic process consisted in first making wrought iron. This was packed with wood chips or charcoal in closed crucibles that were heated
Forging (Hot Hammering)
Forging iron, which is much harder than copper, requires that the bloom be reheated until it is red. It is then hammered on an anvil, a process that physically drives out the various impurities
Annealing is the process of reheating cast or hammered metal slowly until it is red hot. This restores its crystalline structure and is necessary after metal has been repeatedly hammered.
Quenching
Quenching, as mentioned above, refers to heating iron (alloyed with carbon) to a high temperature —at least the 725°C threshold where it turns red— and then rapidly cooling it by plunging it into water.
Casting
Fully molten metal can be cast, that is, poured into a mold.
***Material science***
Materials science has shaped the development of civilizations since the dawn of humankind. Better materials for tools and weapons has allowed people to spread and conquer, and advancements in material processing like steel and aluminum production continue to impact society today. Historians have regarded materials as such an important aspect of civilizations such that entire periods of time have defined by the predominant material used (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).
The history of materials science is the study of how different materials were used and developed through the history of Earth and how those materials affected the culture of the peoples of the Earth. The term "Silicon Age" is sometimes used to refer to the modern period of history during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.
Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (processing) influences its structure, and also the material's properties and performance.
Materials science is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis – investigating materials, products, structures or their components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property.
The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties.
Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. Materials science examines the structure of material. For example :- micr structure, macro structure, nano structure, atomic structure
Properties of metals :-
Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following.
1Mechanical properties, see Strength of materials
2.Chemical properties, see Chemistry
3.Electrical properties, see Electricity
4.Thermal properties, see Thermodynamics
5.Optical properties, see Optics and Photonics
6.Magnetic properties, see Magnetism
Processing :- developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science. Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods.
****Point 4.4 Ancient Indian Agricultural Practices****
Ancient India boasts a rich agricultural heritage that stretches back thousands of years. This land has witnessed the cultivation of diverse crops and the development of ingenious irrigation techniques.
I. The Dawn of Agriculture in Ancient India
Early Agricultural Practices Ancient Indian agriculture dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization, around 3300–1300 BCE. People in this era practiced rudimentary forms of agriculture, growing crops like wheat, barley, and millets. Archaeological findings reveal evidence of plowing, irrigation canals, and
well-planned cities that depended on farming for sustenance.
The Vedic Period The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) marked a transition in agricultural practices. The Rigveda, one of the oldest Vedic texts, contains references to plowing, crop cultivation, and the use of tools like plows and sickles. Cattle played a crucial role in agriculture during this period, and rituals associated with agriculture were prevalent.
II. Innovations in Ancient Indian Agriculture
Crop Rotation Ancient Indian farmers practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility. By alternating between different crops in a particular field, they prevented soil depletion and enhanced overall productivity. This sustainable practice is still relevant in modern agriculture.
Iron Plows and Tools The Iron Age brought innovations in farming tools. Iron plows replaced wooden ones, making tilling easier and more efficient. Other iron tools like sickles and hoes further improved agricultural productivity.
III. Ancient Indian Crops
Wheat and Barley Wheat and barley were staple crops in ancient India. Rice Rice was another crucial crop in ancient India, especially in the southern regions . Millets Millets, such as finger millet (ragi) and pearl millet (bajra), were grown in various parts of India.
IV. Irrigation Systems
Wells and Stepwells Ancient Indians developed intricate well systems to access groundwater.
Canals and Dams The construction of canals and dams was a hallmark of ancient Indian agriculture. The Indus Valley Civilization, for instance, had a network of canals for irrigation.
Tank Irrigation Tanks or artificial reservoirs were created to store rainwater.
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