indian knowledge system subject notes nep bsc ba bcom bcs iks notes

***indian knowledge system subject Course Contents IKS:***. syllabus ***

Syllabus 

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS 

1. Definition

2. Objectives 

3. Contemporary significance 

4. Historical overview of Indian Education and Educational Institutions 

MODULE 2: INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS 

1. Theist systems : (Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Purva nd Uttar Meemansa ) Nature, Concept and Literature 

2. Atheist systems : : (Buddhism, Jainism and Charvaka ) Nature, Concept and Literature 

MODULE 3: CONTRIBUTIONS TO HUMANITIES 

1. Introduction to classical Languages in India (Sanskrit, Pali, Magadhi)

2. Introduction to ancient Indian art (Music, and Drama) and architecture (temples and town planning)

3. Indian philosophical thoughts on Social Institutions(Purushartha, Ashrama, Dharma and Values).

4. Introduction to Bhartiya Arthshastra and Nitishstra (Basic Concepts) 

MODULE 4: CONTRIBUTIONS TO STEM (SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 

MATHEMATICS )

1. Historical development of mathematics and astronomy in India

2. Health and Medicinal Practices Introduction to Ayurveda, and lifestyle (Rutucharya, Dincharya , 

etc.) with reference to Charaka, Sushrut and Vagbhatta

3. Ancient Indian techniques and achievements related to metallurgy and material science.

4. Ancient Indian Agricultural Practices

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UNIT1/MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS 

Point 1. Definition of IKS :-

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a broad term for the knowledge, beliefs, and practices that have developed in India over thousands of years. It includes a wide range of subjects, such as:

mathematics, science and technology, medicine, astronomy, architecture, philosophy, arts, languages, literature, and cultural and social practices. 

The IKS is rooted in ancient texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas. It has evolved through the contributions of many civilizations and cultures. 

Bharatiya Knowledge Systems and Traditions, also known as Indian Knowledge Systems and Traditions, refer to the vast and diverse body of knowledge, philosophy, sciences, arts, and spiritual traditions that have developed and evolved in the Indian subcontinent over several millennia. These systems and traditions have been integral to the cultural fabric of India and continue to play a significant role in 

shaping its society, thought processes, and way of life. 

Bharatiya Knowledge Systems, or Jivan Darshan, offer a comprehensive way of life rooted in

ancient Indian wisdom. It encompasses various dimensions of human existence, including physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects.

“The Way of Life” or “Jivan Darshan” in the Bhartiya Knowledge Systems refers to the

holistic philosophy and approach to living that is deeply rooted in Indian traditions. It

encompasses various principles and practices that guide individuals in leading a purposeful

and balanced life. 

This concept emphasizes the interconnectedness of all aspects of life, including the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions. It encourages individuals to align their actions and thoughts with higher ideals, promoting self-awareness, self-discipline, and ethical conduct. The goal is not just personal well-being, but also the betterment of society and the environment.

Hindu Philosophical Systems: Bharatiya knowledge systems encompass a wide array of philosophical 

schools of thought, collectively known as Darshanas. Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy are 

prominent:

a. Nyaya: Focuses on logical reasoning and epistemology.

b. Vaisheshika: Deals with atomism and metaphysics.

c. Samkhya: Explores the duality of purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter).

d. Yoga: Emphasizes spiritual practices and self-realization.

e. Mimamsa: Concentrates on rituals and scriptural exegesis.

f. Vedanta: Investigates the essence of the Vedas and the nature of reality.

Ayurveda: Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that dates back thousands of years

Yoga and Meditation: Yoga is another integral part of Bharatiya knowledge systems.

Meditation is an 

essential component of yoga, helping individuals achieve mental clarity, inner peace, and spiritual 

growth.

Indian Arts and Literature: Bharatiya knowledge systems find expression in various forms of art and literature. Vastu, jyotish, dharm, karma, spirituality, guru-shishya parampara, 

The Four Purusharthas of the Bharatiya knowledge system are Dharma (righteousness),

Artha (material wealth), Kama (desire/pleasure), and Moksha (liberation/spiritual fulfillment).

These purusharthas represent the different goals or pursuits that individuals can strive for in life.

Point 1.2. Objectives of IKS

The knowledge traditions of Glorious Bharat (India) have a rich and diverse history that spans several millennia. These traditions encompass various fields of knowledge, including philosophy, science, mathematics, medicine, arts, literature, and spirituality. 

Here are some of the prominent knowledge 

 traditions of Glorious Bharat:

Vedic Knowledge: The Vedas form the foundation of Vedic knowledge. They consist of four main texts: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. These sacred scriptures contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical discussions that have shaped the religious and spiritual beliefs of the world.

Bharatiya Knowledge Systems and Traditions are a rich and multifaceted heritage that has 

evolved over thousands of years. These systems encompass a wide array of philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and artistic knowledge that continues to shape the cultural identity and intellectual discourse of India. By preserving and studying these traditions, people gain valuable insights into human existence, the nature of reality, and the pursuit of harmony and well-being. Objectives of IKS are as follows:

1. Service (Seva): The Sanskrit word ‘Seva’ is a beautiful word that comes from root

words ‘sah’ and ‘eva’ meaning ‘together with.’ It conveys the act of ‘selfless service

for the other.’ Whatever it is that one does for the benefit of others, without expecting

anything in return is ‘Seva'.

2. "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" is a Sanskrit phrase that translates to "The world is one family."

This concept embodies the idea of universal brotherhood, interconnectedness, and the

shared essence of humanity. Here's the theory behind it: Interconnectedness: The concept recognizes that all beings on Earth are interconnected

and interdependent. Just as members of a family are connected by bonds of love and

responsibility, the entire world is interconnected through shared experiences, resources, and the environment.

3.SELF - REVELATION OF BHARAT

"Self-Revelation of Bharat" refers to the process of understanding and discovering the essence of India (Bharat) as a nation, a civilization, and a cultural entity. It involves exploring and acknowledging the unique characteristics, historical evolution, values, philosophies, and contributions of India to the world.

4.Historical and Cultural Heritage: The self-revelation of Bharat begins with an exploration of its rich historical and cultural heritage. India has a long and diverse history, with evidence of ancient civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization. 

5.Spirituality and Philosophy: India has been a cradle of spirituality and philosophy for thousands of years. The ancient texts, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and other scriptures, lay the foundation for profound spiritual teachings and philosophical inquiries.

6.Contributions to Knowledge: The self-revelation of Bharat includes recognizing its historical contributions to various fields of knowledge. India has been a center of learning and scholarship, and ancient universities.

7.Art, Music, and Literature: India's artistic expressions have left a profound mark on global culture. Traditional dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi, along with classical music, have mesmerized audiences worldwide.

8. 

14.Harmony with Nature: The term "Harmony with Nature" refers to a principle of

amicable and holistic co-existence between humanity and nature.The Way of Life

recognizes the interconnectedness of humans with the natural world. Living in

harmony with nature and respecting the environment is an integral aspect of this

philosophy.

Point 1.3.contemporary significance of IKS

India is one of world's most populated countries. The Indus, one of the world's oldest rivers, is the source of the country's name. The term 'Bharata' alludes to a holy piece of the modern historians of ancient India.

Numerous aspects of modern life may be traced back to ancient India, including the toilet, sewage system, public swimming pools and other areas of science and technology.

IKS explains how, when, and where people in India established their first civilisations. It describes how they launched business agriculture and stock-raising, resulting in a stable and established lifestyle.

It demonstrates how indigenous Indians found and used natural resources, as well as how they developed their bread and butter. We learn how the original people made provisions for food, housing, and transportation, as well as how they began farming, spinning, weaving, formation, and other activities; we also learn how they cleared woods, founded towns, cities, and finally gigantic kingdoms. 

Knowing how ancient individuals and cultures dealt with challenges in the past might help us recognise and prepare for our problems today and in the future.

Studying ancient history allows us to have a better grasp of our cultural heritage and intellectual growth. Ancient history, at every level, will help us define our own identities. We all know that we wouldn’t be who we are today if we didn’t understand our culture.  

India is the world’s biggest, oldest, and richest civilisation.Indians invented zero and hence the numeration system, which is considered one of history’s greatest inventions. India gave birth to positional notation, the value of pi, algebra, trig, calculus, and a slew of other mathematical concepts. The most common number used by Greeks and Romans was ten to the facility of six; Indians utilised numerals as large as ten to the capacity of fifty-three long before 5000 B.C. 

Sushruta, renowned as the “Father of Medicines,” was the first to invent the practice of doing surgery while in a physiological condition. Ayurveda, the major school of medications, was based on scientific data on plant-derived remedies and is being used efficiently today. Several ancient Indian writings provide extensive knowledge on anatomy, embryology, digestion, metabolism, physiology, genetics, immunity, science, and aetiology.

an Indian called Brahmagupta, not a scientist, who described gravity 1,000 years before the land Empire arose. The origin and age of the cosmos and Earth, as well as the circumference of the globe and alternate planets, were all well-known to ancient Indians.

Well before modern astronomers, scientist Bhaskaracharya estimated the time it takes our planet to circle the sun to be 365.258756484 days. .

Indian knowledge syste helps and boosts for research and innovations.  Iks focuses on skill and personality development. Indian Astronomy:Astronomy as the science of determination of time, place and direction by observing the motion of the celestial bodies. The motion of the Sun and Moon. Motion of equinoxes and solstices. Elements of Indian calendar systems as followed in different regions of India.

9.Indian Health Sciences:

Vedic foundations of Ayurveda. Ayurveda is concerned both with maintenance of good health and treatment of diseases. Basic concepts of Ayurveda. The three Gunas and Three Doshas, Pancha-mahabhuta and Sapta-dhatu.

10.Indian Architecture and Town Planning: 

The importance of Sthapatya-veda. The ancient cities of the Indus Saraswati region. Town planning and drainage systems.

11.Indian Agriculture: 

The significance of agriculture and irrigation as emphasised in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and other texts.Excellence of Indian agricultural technologies as observed by more recent European observers.

12.Indian Textiles:

India as the ancient home of cotton and silk fabrics. Weaving formed the most significant part of Indian economy after agriculture.

13.Indian Metallurgy:

Vedic references to metals and metal working. Mining and manufacture in India of Zinc, Iron, 

Copper, Gold, etc., from ancient times.

Point 1.4. Historical overview of Indian Education and Educational Institutions 

The roots of education in India trace back to ancient times, characterized by the existence of gurukuls and ashrams. These centers of learning of teacher-student relationship, where knowledge was imparted through oral traditions. Holistic education was the focus, encompassing subjects ranging from philosophy and astronomy to mathematics and linguistics. This era laid the foundation for the revered guru-shishya tradition, instilling a profound respect for knowledge and wisdom.

India has always been a land of rich heritage and cultural diversity. Our ancient education system focuses on skill development and experiential learning. These ideas are working from thousands of years ago and now a days focused mainly. The evolution of the Indian education system has been a fascinating reflection of a rich history. From learning Vedas under the shade of a tree to pursuing degrees, India has witnessed a major social and cultural shift.

Ancient wisdom of gurukul. Imagine going to school in a forest, living with your guru or teacher, and learning through practical experiences. That was the essence of the ancient gurukul system. Students, known as brahmachārīs, learned a way of life from the age of 8 or 12 until they were 25. The education was totally through orals and debates.

Curriculam :- Education wasn't confined to textbooks. It covered everything from the sacred Vedas to archery, astronomy, and medicine,. Learning was interactive, with skill development, discussions, debates, and storytelling playing a key role. The lively debates under a banyan tree and the joy of learning with fellow students feel worlds apart from the lonely confinement of textbooks.

Methods of learning

The teachers at that time paid special focus to their students and teach them according to their knowledge and skill level. Teaching was basically via orals and debates, and the different methods were as follows:

• At that time books were not there, so students had the habit to learn and memorize all the things taught in the class, and teachers also helped them in memorizing.

• The teachers used the storytelling methods to teach the 

1 university of Mithila/ mithila vishwa vidyapeeth :- this university was famous for Nyaya Sutra and logical Sciences. It was gradually started from the philosophical conferences held by Seeradhwaja janaka the ikshvaku king of Mithila at his court. Janaka was an ancient Hindu king of Videha which was located in Mithila region, approximately in the 8th or 7th century BC. The rulers of the Videha kingdom were called Janakas. He also appears in epic ramayanas a father of goddess sita.

2.Takshashila was the famous center of learning, including religion in ancient times. It was famous for its higher education learning comprising of subjects like ancient scriptures, law, medicine, sociology, astronomy, military science, and 18 shilpas, and almost all kinds of subjects etc. The well-known scholars from the university were great grammarian Panini, he was an expert in his subject of grammar and published his work on Ashtadhyayi, Chanakya who is skilled in statecraft both studied here. Students from Kashi, Kosala, Magadha, and also from different countries

3.Nalanda University, a catalyst for ancient Indian education. Founded in the 5th century, Nalanda was the world’s one of the first residential university, attracting 10,000 students and scholars from across the world. It was a hub of knowledge and innovation, with an extensive library housing millions of books and offering subjects ranging from astronomy to logic. This university was destroyed by bakhtiyar khilji.

4. Sharda pith ;- It is a ruined hindu temple and ancient centre of learning located in present-day Pakistan-administered Jammu and Kashmir. Between the 6th and 12th centuries CE, it was among the most prominent temple universitiesin the indian subcontinent Known in particular for its library, stories recount scholars travelling long distances to access its texts. It played a key role in the development and popularisation of the Sharda script in North India.

5. Vikramshila (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला) was one of the two most important centres of learning in India during the pala empire along with maganda.. Its location is now the site of Antichak village, bhagalpur district in bihar. Vikramshila was established by the pala dynasty emperor Dhrmapala (783 to 820 AD) .

6. Ujjaini University

One university that simply stands out for its academic output in astronomy and mathematics is Ujjaini (also called Ujjain), which was equipped with an elaborate observatory and stood on the zero meridians of longitude of those times. Brahmagupta was among the most celebrated astronomers of Ujjaini university who continued the tradition of Varahamihira and made significant contributions to mathematics. 

7.Valabhi university :- It was the capital of the Maitraka empire. It is located in Vallabhipur, Bhavnagar district of present day Gujarat. It was the schools for Hinayana Buddhism.

The other main subjects taught at the university were Statesmanship, Economics, Book-keeping, Business and Agriculture.

8. Jagaddala University

The Jaggadala Vihara in Varendrabhumi (now Bangladesh) was also an important centre of learning in the early 11th century. It was established by the king Kampala

According to Tibetan works, it was at Jagaddala where many sacred Sanskrit texts were translated into the Tibetan language

9.Kanthalloor Shala

Kanthalloor shala was a temple university situated in Trivendram. Cholas were the patrons of this university. It was known as the Nalanda of South. The Kanthalloor Shala was once a famous center of knowledge and due to the quality of education provided by this ancient university, it attracted scholars from other parts of India and Sri Lanka.

10.Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth

It was named after famous Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna. Vidyapeeth was situated in South India on the banks of the Krishna river.

Its library housed on the top floor of the five story building had an enormous collection of the Buddhist philosophy, science and medicine.

The enormity of the collection is borne out by the fact that it not only had works on the Buddhist literature, but also on several branches of scientific knowledge, such as, Botany, Geography, Mineralogy and Medicine.

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********Unit 2/module 2 :- Indian philosophical systems**********

Point 2.1. Theist systems : (Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Purva meemansa and Uttar Meemansa ) Nature, Concept and Literature 

Darshanas are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas.For many centuries, Indian thinkers have spoken of the ṣhaḍ darśana, or “six views” on reality.They are part of the six scriptures of the indian ancient sanatan teachings, the other five being Shrutis, Smritis,Itihasas, puranas and Agamas. While the first four are intuitional( relating to nature), and the fifth are inspirational and emotional. 

The Darshanas are the intellectual sections of the ancient indian i.e. Hindu writings. The Darshana literature is philosophical in nature and meant for the erudite(who have deep study) scholars who are endowed(prosper) with acumen(who is having great grasping/learning power), understanding, and intellect. While the Itihasas, Puranas, and Agamas are meant for the masses and appeal to the heart, the Darshanas appeal to the intellect.

The meaning of darśana, more relevant to our discussion here, is a specific system of ideas used to perceive reality: that is, a perspective or worldview.The ṣaḍ darśanas, according to this categorization, are Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṃsā (Pūrva Mīmāṃsā), and Vedānta (Uttara Mīmāṃsā).

Philosophy                          Originator

             

1. Sankhya                                 Kapila

2. Yoga                                      Patanjali

3. Nyaya                                   Gautama rushi 

4. Vaisheshika                         Kanada(कणाद)

5. Purva Mimansa                  Jamini

6. Uttar Mimansa                   Badrayana

   or Vedanta                           / Shankara

1.1)sankhya darshan :- Sāṃkhya is a very ancient system of thought, traced to the sage Kāpila (for whom the city of the Buddha’s upbringing, Kāpilavastu, was named). Sāṃkhya is dualistic. It affirms, in other words, that there are two fundamental types of thing making up reality. These are puruṣa, or spirit, and prakṛti, meaning nature or materiality. There are as many puruṣas as there are living beings. They are numerically many. Their nature, however, is one; and this nature is pure consciousness.

The puruṣas passively observe the operations of active prakṛti, or material nature. Prakṛti is in constant motion, and oscillates through three modes of being, or guṇas. These guṇas, or qualities, are known as sattva, rajas रज, and tamas. Rajas is the active quality. It could be translated as dynamism. Tamas तम is inertia. Sattva is a peaceful state of equilibrium between these two. From a spiritual perspective, to be tamasic तामसीक is the worst state to cultivate, in which one makes no progress, nor has any interest in doing so. A tamasic person–one in whom this quality is predominant–could be called a spiritual “couch potato.” The predominance of rajas causes one to be very active in the world: a better state than tamas, but nonetheless one in need of transcendence.

The best of the guṇas is sattva, a calm but alert state in which one can view reality with more objectivity than the desire-driven states of rajas and tamas. Even sattva, though, is to be transcended; for the ultimate goal of Sāṃkhya philosophy is the liberation of the puruṣa.

1.2. Yog darshan/ yoga darshana:- Yoga does affirm the existence of Īśvara, which it defines as a puruṣa that has never been bound to prakṛuti. Īśvara is an ever free being; and contemplation of Īśvara (Īśvarapraṇidhāna) is one of the practices that the Yoga system commends for the attainment of liberation. Maharshi PATANJALI is the precher of yog darshan and ADOYOGI SHIV MAHADEV is the founder of yog.

Yoga  could be seen as a practice built upon the Sāṃkhya theory of the nature of reality. The Yoga darśana accepts the Sāṃkhya worldview, but adds to this worldview an eight-step or eight-limbed (aṣṭāṅga) system of practice for the purpose of liberating puruṣa from prakṛti.

These eight steps, as enumerated by the sage Patañjali in his Yoga Sūtra, the root text of this system, are yama, niyama, āsana, prāṇayama, pratyāhāra, dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi. 

Yama and Niyama are ethical restraints which one must master before one even begins the process of meditation. The yamas are nonviolence (ahiṃsā), telling the truth (satya), not stealing (asteya), self-control in all areas of life, especially in the area of sexuality (brahmacarya), and detachment (aparigraha). 

The niyamas are purity (śauca), contentment (santoṣa), asceticism (tapas), study, including self-study ( svādhyāya), and the aforementioned contemplation of Īśvara (īśvarapraṇidhāna).

Āsana is the posture in which one practices meditation.Patañjali tells us that the only absolute requirements for posture are that one be in a clean and comfortable place and that one keep one’s back straight (to aid breathing).

Prāṇayama is control of the breath. 

Pratyāhāra is control of one’s response to external stimuli. 

Dhāraṇā consists of concentration on a single object, which is a preparation for Dhyāna, or meditation. 

1.3. Nyaya darshan:- Nyāya is a system of logic and a theory of knowledge. Ngata is Developed by the great hindu sage maharshi Gautama Rushi. 

Nyāya is focused primarily upon establishing a firm foundation for knowledge. How do we know what we know? How do we support the truth claims that we make?

In Indian philosophy a basis for making a knowledge claim is called a pramāṇa प्रूफ.

One principle of Indian philosophy accepted by all schools is that, when one is debating with an adherent of another darśana, one should only use pramāṇas that the other accepts. 

In order to be persuasive, one would need to cite sensory experience or inferential logic–both.

Nyāya accepts four pramāṇas: sensory perception ( pratyakṣa), inferential logic (anumāna), comparison (upamāna), and “word” (śabda), which is the speech of an authoritative person or text (such as the Vedas).

The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya. Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology (a theory of knowledge).

The word 'nyaya' popularly signifies 'right' or 'justice.' Nyaya shastra is the science of right judgment or true reasoning. 

Salient features of nyaya darshan :

• Realism - Belief in the independent (even from our perceptions and knowledge) existence of the external world, i.e., the world is real. Hence Nyaya is described as realistic.
• Logic - Independent existence of the world can be defended not by faith or intuition but by logical arguments 
• Pluralism - Nyaya maintains that the nature of Ultimate Reality is many and thus is described as pluralistic in view.
• Ishvara is the Efficient cause - Ishvara is the nimitta karana or efficient cause (instrumental cause) of the creation. Brahmaiv jagat karanam.

1.4 vaisheshika darshan:- 

Vaiseshika or Vaiśeṣika (Samskrit : वैशेषिक) is one of the Shad darshana or the Veda Upangas which exist traditionally since ancient times in India. The Vaiseshika system takes its name from Visesha, or particularity which is the characteristic differential of things. Rishi Kanada कणाद is credited as the founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy. He is also known by the names, Aulukya and Kasyapa.

Vaisheshika Darshan (370 Sutras, 10 chapters) was founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 2nd century BC. Vaisheshika Darshan, one of the six Hindu Philosophies explains about the existence physical universe, living beings, soul and moksha.

salient features of the vaisheshika darshana :- 

1.At the beginning of creation, God's given effort is possible only by the combination of atoms; earth and tree are all things.

2.The natural qualities of the earth, air, fire, water and ether are smell, touch, form & heat, fluidity & coolness and sound.

3.Living beings are souls who enjoy or suffer in this world according as they are wise or ignorant, good or bad

4.Desire which create tendency in the offerings of charity, yagna and donation, is Dharma (virtues). Violence, malice etc. are the tendency of the wicked. The activities done by speech, mind and body, are called tendencies. Speaking truth, speaking sweetly, speaking for others' sentiment are virtuous tendencies.

5.False knowledge is a cause of sadness, desire and defects. The destruction of misery is not salvation, but the continuous happiness is the only salvation (Moksha or liberation).

1.5. purva mimansa darshana:-

Maharshi Jaimini (जैमिनि) is considered as founder of Mimamsa (मीमांसा) (also known as Poorva Mimamsa (पूर्वमीमांसा)) Darshana (दर्शनम्)

Purva Mimamsa propagates Dharma (laws/duty) and emphasise Karma (deeds), hence also called as Karma Mimamsa.The Mimamsa Sutra (sanskrut: मीमांसा सूत्र, Mīmāṁsā Sūtra) or the Purva Mimamsa Sutras (ca. 300–200 BCE).

Mimamsa is an enquiry into the earlier portion of the Vedas, an enquiry into ritual section of the Vedas or that portion of the Vedas. 

It is called Poorva Mimamsa, because it is earlier (hence, poorva) . In simple words we can Say that The aim of Purva Mimamsa is to investigate into the the nature of Dharma.

The work is divided into twelve adhyayas (chapters), which are further divided into sixty padas (sections)..

Jaimini's method of interpretation is based on three debts that every human owes:

 

1.Devaruna (देवऋुणम्). This literally translates to debt due to god and is satisfied by performing sacrifice.

2.Rshiruna (ऋषिऋुणम्). The debt due to Rshis (hindi) is paid by acquiring knowledge. 

3.Pitruruna (पितृऋुणम्). The debt due to forefathers is to be satisfied by maintaining a family and cherishing the family name.

1.6. uttar mimansa darshana:-

The later portion of the vedas which mainly speak of the Ātmavidya (upnishad), the study. regarding soul, is called uttarmimansa. This school of thought developed under the leadership of badarayana बादरायण  or vedvyas वेदव्यास.

Uttara Mimamsa, also known as the Vedanta school of philosophy, is a Hindu philosophy. It focuses on understanding the nature of reality and the self. It explores the Upanishads, which are considered the concluding portions of the Vedas. Uttara Mimamsa emphasizes the concept of Brahm as the ultimate reality.

Uttaramīmāṃsa thinkers do not recommend any activities. According to them, moksha or salvation is not something to be achieved by effort. All are muktas or liberated though do not realize it. They say that it is because of avaidya., the supreme reality or Brahm is hidden from the inner sight. Once avidya or false knowledge is overcome one could find himself liberated from the worldly bondages. Badrayana's brahmsutra’ is the authentic book which is highly regarded by all scholars.

It investigates the relationship between Brahman and the individual self (Atman). The philosophy highlights the study and interpretation of scriptures. It regards them as a means to attain self-realization and liberation. Adi Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya have contributed to this philosophical tradition.

Shankaracharya wrote a commentary on Uttaramimamsa philosophy in the 9th century AD.
- Vedanta philosophy is also known as Uttara Mimamsa philosophy, because it deals with the later part of Vedic literature, mainly the Upanishads.

Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three.

1. Brahm or Ishwar: the ultimate reality
2. Atman or jivatman: the individual soul, self
3. Brahmand or Jagat: the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter

Point 2.2. Atheist systems : : (Buddhism, Jainism and Charvaka ) Nature, Concept and Literature 

**Charvaka philosophy (also given as Carvaka) was a philosophical school of thought, developed in India. stressing materialism as the means by which one understands and lives in the world. Materialism holds that perceivable matter is all that exists.Charvaka emphasized the importance of enjoying life through eating and drinking.

The essential tenets of the philosophy were:

• Direct perception as the only means of establishing and accepting any truth
• What cannot be perceived and understood by the senses does not exist
• All that exists are the observable elements of air, earth, fire, and water
• The ultimate good in life is pleasure; the only evil is pain
• Pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain is the sole purpose of human existence

Charvaka, a philosophical Indian school of materialists who rejected the notion of an afterworld, karma, liberation (moksha), the authority of the sacred scriptures, the vedas and the immortality of the self. Of the recognized means of knowledge (pramana), the Charvaka recognized only direct perception (anubhava).

Furthermore, Charvaka's Philosophy emphasizes that knowledge derived from observations should be approached with scepticism(doubt), acknowledging that inferred truths are conditional. This perspective encourages a pragmatic understanding of existence, challenging traditional beliefs and advocating for a more rational approach to knowledge. 

Followers of Charvaka were often accused of being run on their own self-interests and of being hedonists and opportunists, wanting to accumulate material gains by professing a school of thought that validates it.

**Buddhism philosophy:-  

Buddhism known as Buddha Dharma/dhamma, is an indian religion and philosophical traditions based on teachings attributed to the buddha. 

According to tradition, the Buddha instructed his followers in a path of personality development which leads to awakening and full liberation from dukkha ('suffering or unease'). He regarded this path as a Middle way between extremes such as ascetism or sensual indulgence. The Dharma wheel (Dharmachakra/dhammachakk) is a symbol common to several religions with origins in India including Jainism, Hinduism. 

Teaching that dukkha arises alongside attachment aur clinging the Buddha advised meditational practices and ethical percepts rooted in non-harming. Widely observed teachings include the four noble truths (four arya satya), the Noble eight fold paths (ashtangmarga), and the doctrines of dependent origination, Karma, and the 3 marks of existence(trilakṣaṇa) Other commonly observed elements include the triple gem, the taking of monastic vows and the cultivation of perfections (parmita).

Buddhism is often divided into four major branches, traditions or categories:

1.Theravada ("Teaching of the Elders"), also called "Southern Buddhism", mainly dominant in shri lanka and southeast Asia.

2. East Asian Mahayana ("Great Vehicle"), east aapan buddhismor "Eastern Buddhism", prominent in east aisa.

 3. Vajrayana (vajra- Vehicle"), also known as Mantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. This category is mostly represented in "Northern Buddhism", also called "info Tibetan buddhism" (or just "Tibetan Buddhism"

4. The Hinayana sect, meaning ‘Small Vehicle’ in Sanskrit, It stressed individual salvation through self-discipline and mediation.

The Four Noble Truths are:

• Dukkha ("not being at ease", "suffering") 
• samudaya (origin, arising, combination; "cause"): dukkha is caused by trushna ("craving," "desire" or "attachment," literally "thirst")
• Nirodha (cessation, ending, confinement): dukkha can be ended or contained by the confinement or letting go of taṇhā
• marga (path) is the path leading to the confinement of taṇhā and dukkha, 

The Eightfold Path : consists of eight practices: right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samadhi ('meditative absorption or union'.

Three gems: goutam buddha, dharma(dhamma) and sangha are three supportive systems .

**Jainism philosophy:-

Jainism also known as Jain Dharma is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankar ( preachers of Dharma), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhdev, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshwanath, and twenty forth tirthankar vardhaman Mahavira. The Jain symbol is a swastika, which is a sacred symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism. The Dharma wheel (Dharmachakra) is a symbol common to several religions with origins in India including Jainism, Hinduism,

Jain monks take five main vows: 

1.ahiṃsā (non-violence):- intentional non-violence" or "noninjury

2.satya (truth):- This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.

3.asteya (not stealing):- A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.

4.brahmcharya (chastity):- Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.

5.aparigraha (non-possessiveness):- This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.

These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly lacto-vegiterian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jivanam (जिओ एवं जिने दो))the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Matra is its most common prayer.

Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambar and shvetambar, which hold different views on ascetic practices. The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī.

Main principles of Jainism:- 

1.The principle of ahinsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.

Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.

2.The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda, from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically "non-oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects.

3.The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.

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***********MODULE 3: CONTRIBUTIONS TO HUMANITIES *****************

1. Introduction to classical Languages in India (Sanskrit, Pali, Magadhi)

Sanskrit is considered as the oldest language in the world. Sanskrit is also called as DevBhasha. Sanskrut was in the oral form later brahmi script and devnagri script for writing purpose. Infact sanskrit is written in many scripts like bangla, sharda script of kashmir, gujrati, udia, and many more. Sanskrit is said to belong to Indo – Aryan family of language. Sanskrit is included in the list of modern Indian Languages in the eighth schedule of the constitution of India.

As per the Indian tradition Sanskrit Language has no beginning and no ending. It is eternal. Self-born language God has created it. It is divine. It is everlasting.

Sanskrut is an ancient and classical language of India in which ever first book of the world Rigveda was compiled. The Vedas are dated by different scholars from 6500 B.C. to 1500 B.C. Sanskrit language must have evolved to its expressive capability prior to that. 

It is presumed that the language used in Vedas was prevalent in the form of different dialects. It was to some extent different from the present Sanskrit. It is termed as Vedic Sanskrit. Each Veda had its book of grammar known as Pratishakhyam.

Vedas, Brahmana-Granthas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas had come to existence which could be termed as Vedic Literature being written in Vedic Sanskrit.

Panini (500 B.C.) was a great landmark in the development of Sanskrit language. He, concising about ten grammar schools prevalent during his time, wrote the master book of grammar named Ashtadhyayi.

Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras, which are still used by yoga practitioners today.

Shudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa, mahadev and Kalidasa are among the most famous Sanskrit writers. Abhijnanashakuntalam, a drama by Kalidasa, is widely recognized as a masterpiece and was one of the earliest Sanskrit works to be translated into English, as well as many other languages of the world.

the current modern international language, has been influenced by Sanskrit and has picked up many loanwords from the ancient language (for example, 'primitive' form 'preaching', meaning historical, 'ambrosia' from 'amruta' meaning food of the Gods, 'attack' from 'akramana' meaning taking aggressive action, etc).

Sanskrit has been the source of later languages and literature in India. Pali and Prakrit were first to develop from Sanskrit. Pali was taken as means for exposition of Buddhistic ideas and Prakrit was used for the spread of Jain doctrines.

Eminent Sanskrit Authors

1. AdikAvi valmiki
2. Maharshi ved vyas
3. Kalidas
4. Bhasa
5. Harsha
6. Panini
7. Patanjali
8. Adya Shankaracharya
9. Kalhana
10. Jaidev

***Pali language :-

The term "Pali Bhasha" or "Pali language is derived from "Patal" or "Padali," potentially indicating a connection to the language of Pataliputra. Pali is an Indian subcontinental Middle Indo-European/indo aryan liturgical language. Pali was designated as a classical language by the Government of India on 3 October 2024.

Literally, Pāli means “line, row, or series”. The early Buddhist masters extended the meaning of the term to mean “a series of books”.  Thus, Palibhāsa means “language of the texts”. Pāli Tipiṭaka means the teachings of the Buddha. According to Pāli Grammar, Pāli means protection because it protects the Teaching of the Buddha (Dhamma).

The word Pāli means: 

1. A line; 

2. a causeway; 

3. a sacred text; 

4. the texts recording the teachings of the Buddha

Pali is thought to be a mash-up of multiple Prakrit languages from around the 3rd century BCE, merged and largely Sanskritized, according to current study. It is widely studied since it is the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism as well as the language of the Pali Canon or Tipitaka. It was originally written in Brahmi script. 

The most famous and enduring use of Pali is as the language of the Tipiaka, the Theravada Buddhist canon. The Tipiaka (Sanskrit: Tripiṭaka)(literally meaning “three baskets”) contains the Buddha’s teachings on ethics, psychology, which includes the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka, foundational texts for the Theravada Buddhist tradition.

Pali literature includes numerous genres, including Suttas (Buddhist discourses), vinaya (monastic discipline), abhidhamma (philosophy), poetry, history, Philology, Hagiography, scriptural Exegesis, and meditation manuals. Pali literature consisted of two major genres: histories (vamsa) and commentaries (atthakatha). The histories include the dipavamsa and the mahavamsa.

**Magadhi language:-

Magadhi is also known as magahi. It is indo-aryan language.Magadhi is a language with a glorious past, a subdued intermediate period, a vigorous present, and a promising future. Magahi is also known by its Sanskrit name Magadhi.

It is the language of the people of Magadh, formerly known as Magadha which emerged as a small kingdom around its capital Girivraja (now Rajgir) in central Bihar. Magadha gradually expanded to be one of the world’s largest empires of the time (third to fourth century BC), extending from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Hindukush Mountains and Afghanistan in the northwest, and the River Cavery in the south.

This Magahdi is believed to have evolved from the Vedic Sanskrit following the path: Sanskrit<Prakrit<Magadhi Prakrit<Magadhi Apbhransh<Ancient Magahi<Modern Magahi.Sarahapa as the first Magahi poet. 

The earliest form of written Magadhi is found in the literature of Siddhas. After Siddhas, Magadhi survived only as a 

spoken language. We find that after the Mughal and other foreigners invasion on India, Magadh lost its status as a political power, and the language couldn’t get any patronage. Pandey (1980) divides the history of Magadhi language from thirteenth century till

today into four categories. These four categories are as follows:

Charan period – (1200-1500AD)

Devotional period – (1500-1800AD)

Development period – (1800-1900AD)

Modern period – (1900AD till today)

• Magadhi:
  • Official language of the Mauryan court and spoken by the people of Magadha.
  • Ashokan edicts were written in Magadhi.
  • Evolved into modern languages like Bengali, Assamese, Odia, and the Bihari languages (Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Maithili).
  • Magadhi has approximately 13 million speakers.
• Ardhamagadhi:
  • Variation of the Magadhi language prominently used by Jain scholars.
  • Most Prakrit courses today teach Ardhamagadhi.

*******2. Introduction to ancient Indian art (Music, and Drama) and architecture (temples and town planning)****

The origin of Indian classical music dates back to the Vedic times and reference of the concept of Nadabrahma is found during this time. Narada Muni introduced music to Earth and the concept of Nada Brahma (the sound pervading the universe). Chants and a system of musical notes along with rhythmic cycles are found in vedic scriptures dated 6,000 years ago. Ancient text Samveda, containing organized music, was structured to melodic themes. 

The Aitareya Aranyaka mentions components of the Veena, a revered musical instrument, and the Jaiminiya Brahmana discusses dance and music collectively.The sacred syllable “Om” is believed by musicologists to be the source of all ragas and musical notes.

Samaveda is called the veda of music and is considered to have provided the foundation for Indian music. The Samaveda consists of hymns of Rigveda which are set to melodies. These hymns used to be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic rituals. The Rigveda embeds the musical meter as well. It is believed that the earliest raga originated from Samaveda. Music was purely chanting of verses in musical patterns in the late Vedic period.

During the ancient times, two musical genres prevailed : Gandharva and Gana. 

The Gandharva was the formal composed music performed during ceremonies. This music was considered celestial and divine.

 The Gana was the informal and improvised music performed for entertainment performances. 

Prabandh Sangeet, a form of music written in Sanskrit, became very popular during the second to the seventh century CE. It is believed that the form of Dhruvapad evolved from Prabandh Sangeet.

The first reference to music can be credited to Panini in 500 BCE and the first reference to the musical theory can be credited to `Rikpratisakhya` in 400 BCE. The ancient classical text, Natyashastra, by Bharat Muni is the foundation of numerous classical music and dance traditions of India. Natyashastra was the first musical work book in written format that divided music into octaves and 22 keys.

 Another important ancient text ‘Dathilam’ talked about 22 srutis per octave.Dattilam (दत्तिलम्) is an ancient Indian musical text ascribed to the sage (muni) Dattila.Other two important written works that are worth mentioning are Brihaddesi by Matanga in the ninth century where Matanga tried to define Raag and Sangeeta Makarand by Narada written in the 11th century, describing 93 raags. Raags were classified into feminine and masculine categories in Sangeeta Makarand.

**********Indian drama traces its origins to the Vedic period, where ritual performances and recitations of epic narratives laid the groundwork. The Natyashastra provides principles and techniques for ancient Indian theatre. 

The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Rugved, which contains a number of hymns in the form of dialogues, or even scenes, as well as hymns that make use of other literary forms such as animal fables. However, Indian drama begins its classical stage in the Classical Period with the composition of the Nātyaśāstra (lit. The Science of Drama). Indian classical drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit Literature.

The earliest contribution to the Indian theatre, dating between 2000 B.C.E. and the 4th century C.E., comes from Bharata Muni, who wrote the 36 books of the Natyashastra. Sanskrit drama utilised Stock Characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka).

• Classical Sanskrit drama: Flourished from the 1st century CE to the 12th century CE:
  • Playwrights like Kalidasa, Bhasa, Sudraka, and Harsha crafted intricate dramas blending poetry, music, and dance.
  • Themes ranged from love and heroism to exploration of the human condition.
  • Sanskrit theatre thrived through royal patronage and temple performances.
  • ****Stylised acting, rich language, and incorporation of music and dance characterised these plays.

kālidāsain the 4th-5th century CE, was arguably one of ancient india's greatest Sanskrit dramatists. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), vikramōrvaśīyam (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala). 

The idea of artistic experience described in the Natyashastra is called Rasa and pervades all Indian art forms including theatre, writing, fine arts, and dancing. Rasa is divided into eight categories:

1.Shringara ras (romance)

2.Vira ras (heroism)

3.Raudra ras (anger)

4.Bibhatsa ras(disgust)

5.Hasya ras (humor)

6.Karuna ras(sorrow)

7.Adbhuta ras(wonder)

8.Bhayanaka ras (fear)

Later, scholars identify Shanti ras (peace) as a ninth rasa, when referring to religious feelings.

******Ancient indian architecture (temples and town planning)****

Temple architecture in India plays a crucial role in preserving and promoting Indian cultural heritage. These temple designs represent a fusion of different architectural styles, from complex sculptures of temples.Local materials used in the temple structure, such as stone and wood, add authenticity and relation to the region's natural environment. 

Temples in India served as centres of worship, spiritual practice, and community gatherings. Initially, they were built as simple structures and later evolved into more elaborate and intricate architectural marvels. Temples were patronised by kings, rulers, and wealthy individuals who sponsored their construction and supported the temple communities. Regional and dynastic styles influence the design of temples of ancient India. The architectural principles of temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras.

Indian temple architecture styles persist to attract devotees and tourists worldwide, offering glimpses into India's rich historical, architectural, and religious traditions. They provide a place for worship, spiritual contemplation, and participation in religious rituals, festivities and the centres of economic growth of the society.

As shown in above image there are  Basic Features of the Hindu Temples. The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:

1.Sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’)

It was a small cubicle with a single entrance which grew into a larger chamber in time.

The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon/deity.

2. Mandap : Entrance to the temple

It may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa.

3.shikhar :-Freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire

It can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India.

4.The vahan

It was mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum.

Prominent styles of temple architecture. They are:

1.Nagara :- The Nagara style is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas and developed regionally in Northern parts of India.

In this style, the structure comprises of two buildings, the main taller shrine and an adjoining mandapa which is short. Subtypes of nagar architecture styles are :- Rekha-Prasada, Phamsana, valabhi

2.Dravida:- Dravida style advanced in the region between the Krishna and Kaveri river, throughout the Chola Empire, between 9th–12th Century , this style of temple architecture was flourished.

The two most important characteristics of Dravida temple architecture are:

Temples have more than 4 sides in the sanctum/shikhar.

3.Vesara:- Vesara style is at times related to the region between the Krishna River and Vindhyas emerged during the early medieval period.

Many temples in Central India and Deccan have used the Vesara style with regional modifications.

It is a fusion style of both Nagara and Dravida styles of temple architecture

Temples built but later Chalukyas of Kalyani and Hoysalas are considered as the examples of Vesara style.

4.Hoysala Style Architecture:-

Imagine walking into a temple, and everywhere you look, there's a story unfolding. That's the power of the Hoysala style architecture. Originating from Karnataka.

5.Kalinga Style Architecture:-

Imagine stepping into a time machine and travelling back to the days when kings ruled and spirituality was a way of life. That's the experience you get when you visit a temple built in the Kalinga style. This architectural style hailing from Odisha is a remarkable example of Indian temple architecture styles. Examples- konark surya mandir/sun temple, jagannath mandir puri

6.Hemadpanthi Style Architecture:-

Are you ready to dive into another fascinating chapter of Indian temple architecture styles? Buckle in, because we're about to delve into the Hemadpanthi style, a distinct architectural tradition hailing from Maharashtra. Examples- aundha nagnath jyotirling, amruteshwar mandir ratanwadi

******3.3 Indian philosophical thoughts on Social Institutions(Purushartha, Ashrama, Dharma and Values).****

Purushartha (Sanskrit: पुरुषार्थ, IAST: Puruṣārtha) literally means "object(ive) of men".It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. Puruṣārtha (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha (पुरुष) and Artha (अर्थ). Purusha means "spirit"[citation needed], "immaterial essence"[citation needed], or "primaeval human being as the soul and original source of the universe".depending on the darsana, the school of thought. Artha in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning". Together, Purushartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit.

Purushartha is also referred to as Chaturvarg. The four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values, self-realization).

All four Purusharthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy Moksha is considered the ultimate goal of human life. At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.

Dharma – signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rules, the order that makes life and universe possible,and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living. Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Literature related to dharma are: Dharma-sutras, Dharma-sastras, Yogasutras.

Artha – signifies the "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in.Artha incorporates wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism. Literature related to artha are:  the Arthashastra of Kauṭilya, the Kamandakiya Nitisara, Brihaspati Sutra, and Sukra Niti.

Kama – signifies desire, wish, passion, emotions, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without lustful connotations. Gavin Flood explains kāma as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation). Related literature : Ratirahasya, Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, Ananga Ranga.

Moksha – signifies emancipation, liberation or release. In some schools of Hinduism, moksha connotes freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth, in other schools moksha connotes freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization and liberation in this life. Related literature : the Upanishads, the Vivekachudamani, the Bhagavad Gita.

*****indian philosophical thoughts on social institutions ashrama*****

Āśrama (Sanskrit: आश्रम) is a system of stages of life discussed in Hindu texts of the ancient and medieval eras.The four asramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Gṛhastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest dweller), and Sannyasa (renunciate).

The Asrama system is one facet of the Dharma concept in HinduismIt is also a component of the ethical theories in Indian philosophy, where it is combined with four proper goals of human life (Purushartha), for fulfilment, happiness and spiritual liberation. 

Moreover, since the four asramas can be seen as the framework of an influential life-span model, they are also part of an indigenous developmental psychology which from its ancient beginnings until today has shaped the orientations and goals of many people, especially in India.

Under the Asrama system, the human lifespan was divided into four periods.The goal of each period was the fulfilment and development of the individual. 

1.Brahmacharya (Student's life):-

Ashrama time period Birth–20/25, Brahmacharya represented the bachelor student stage of life. This stage focuses on education and included the practice of celibacy. The student went to a Gurukul (family/clan of the guru) and typically would live with a Guru (mentor), acquiring knowledge of science, philosophy, scriptures and logic, practicing self-discipline, working to earn dakshina to be paid for the guru, learning to live a life of Dharma (righteousness, morals, duties). Upanayana उपनयन at entry & Samavartana समावर्तन at exit.

2. Grihastha (household life) :-

Time period of gruhastashram is 20-40/25-50.

This stage referred to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage was considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as human beings in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind. The stage also represented one where the most intense physical, sexual, emotional, occupational, social and material attachments exist in a human being's life.

Sanakar in this ashram is Hindu wedding.

3.Vanaprastha (retired life):- 

Time period of this ashram is 50-75. The retirement stage, where a person handed over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.Vanaprastha stage was a transition phase from a householder's life with its greater emphasis on Artha and Kama (wealth, security, pleasure and desires) to one with greater emphasis on Moksha (spiritual liberation).

4.Sannyasa (renounced life):- 

Time period in this ashram is 75+ or anytime in life. The stage was marked by renunciation of material desires and prejudices, represented by a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic), and focused on moksha, peace and simple spiritual life. Anyone could enter this stage after completing the Brahmacharya stage of life

********indian philosophical thoughts on social institutions dharma*********

In the ancient Hindu way of life dharma is regarded as one of the most important goals of human life (puruşārthas). The expression ‘dharma’ is derived from the etymological root ‘dhr’ means that which binds or supports or upholds. In the present context dharma stands for righteousness for it serves the purpose of a regulative principle. 

Dharma has been the foundation for good life and the Indian culture regards it an underlying principle for all the achievements in the areas of human inquiry such as science, philosophy, literature, arts, morality, sociality, polity, religion and spirituality. One cannot bypass dharma if one wants to lead a life that is worthy of living. Dharma provides quality to human life. Dharma, in other words, takes us to the core of the Indian civilization.

the fundamental or the law-centered meaning of dharma remains unchanged.Dharma has its origin found in the Vedic intuition called ŗta. From this moral order or force dharma has permeated into every form and facet of human life. Rta conceptualizes the vision of the Vedic seers of inexorable, unswerving and pervasive natural and moral order prevailing in the reality. 

In the Vaiśeşikasūtras, Kanada writes that dharma is that which leads to the realization of material prosperity as well as spiritual enhancement. If dharma is practiced properly it provides us with universal welfare. 

In the Vaiśeşikasūtras of Kaņāda, every padārtha has its unique dharma. In other words it is the dharma that provides individuality to any given entity. For instance, magnet has the power of attracting iron. It is its dharma.

********indian philosophical thoughts on social institutions values*********

All the systems and institutions of learning have a purpose to import knowledge and to cultivate wisdom.  So to learn is not to accrue dry knowledge only but to cultivate one’s individual and social life as well. Life is a process of living values which is it’s creativity principle; it has a meaning not only because of knowledge but due to performance of duties or obligations also. 

Values occupy utmost importance in life and society; they play a vital role in the making of a life human. An atheist can deny the existence of God but cannot deny the role of values he learns since his birth first from his parents and later by society and other sources that have been major in transforming him in to a human being and then understanding the laws of nature properly in a reflective way. 

Ethics (nītīśāstra) is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral values. The word 

‘ethics’ comes from the Greek ethikos, which means a set of moral principles. The word 

is sometimes used to refer to the moral principles of a particular social or religious 

group or an individual. It studies human character and conduct in terms of good and 

bad, right and wrong. What are the qualities of good character? What type of human 

behaviour is evil or bad? How should one act in life? These are some of the fundamental 

questions of ethics/values.

Values made Indian culture rich, which works as a mirror for a global identity.

The spirit of fraternity and friendship in the whole society is the ideal of Vedic socialism. For example, 

in the Atharvaveda, (19.15.6) it is said that - Sarva Asha Mam Mitram Bhavantu - that is, the creatures of all 

directions should become my friends. That is to say, the past creates the future. Therefore, whenever there is talk 

of civilizational culture, its inspiration is the Vedas and Upanishads, the valuable heritage of the past. Because 

in the Vedas, the whole world has been inspired to walk together as a society and to have a common thought, so 

that the path of a good association can be obtained.

 in Indian culture, when it comes to values or values, it does not talk about separation or conflict, but 

mutual fraternity, cooperation and peace. In the Shvetasvatara Upanishad it is said –

ॐ सह नाववतु ।

सह नौ भुनक्तु ।

सह वीर्यं करवावहै ।

तेजस्वि नावधीतमस्तु मा विदविशावै ।

ॐ शांतिः शांतिः शांतिः ॥

************4. Introduction to Bhartiya Arthshastra and Nitishstra (Basic Concepts) *******

The Sanskrit title, Arthashastra, can be translated as 'treatise on "political science"' or "economic science" or simply "statecraft", as the word artha (अर्थ) is polysemous in Sanskrit; the word has a broad scope. It includes books on the nature of government, law, civil and criminal court systems, ethics, economics, markets and trade, the methods for screening ministers, diplomacy, theories on war, nature of peace, and the duties and obligations of a king. The text incorporates Hindu philosophy, includes ancient economic and cultural details on agriculture, mineralogy, mining and metals, animal husbandry, medicine, forests and wildlife.

Arthashastra is an Artha treatise attributed to Kautilya. It was written about 2,300 years ago. It has 15 Adhikaran or books; most were prose, and 380 shlokas after the various chapters. Kautilya taught at Taxila University. Thereby holding the position of Prime Minister in the Mauryan Empire. 

The Arthashastra explores issues of social welfare, the collective ethics that hold a society together, advising the king that in times and in areas devastated by famine, epidemic and such acts of nature, or by war, he should initiate public projects such as creating irrigation waterways and building forts around major strategic holdings and towns and exempt taxes on those affected. The text was influenced by Hindu texts such as the sections on kings, governance and legal procedures.

Kautilya, also called Chanakya or Vishnugupta, is titled the “Father of Arthashastra” or “Who created Arthshastra.” Kautilya was born into a Poor Brahman family in the ancient Indian subcontinent in roughly the 4th century BCE. He was a polymath who was gifted in several subjects, including politics, economics, and military strategy. Acharya chanakya was  the principal advisor/amatya/prime minister to th EmperorChandragupta Maurya.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra outlines key aspects of state governance, focusing on the structure of the economy, the selection of ministers, and the distribution of taxation. It emphasizes the need for a robust surveillance system, using informers, runners, and spies to track both external threats and internal dissent—acting as a substitute for modern police forces and public information ministries. The text’s economic foundation is rooted in agriculture, with Kautilya stressing the importance of the state’s treasury , which he believed directly impacted the king’s ability to govern and the welfare of the state.

The Seven Pillars of Arthashastra

CHANAKYA, an ancient Indian philosopher, economist, and royal advisor, outlined seven essential pillars for business success. These principles are crucial for the stability and prosperity of any enterprise:

Pillar	Description
Leader (King)	The visionary and guiding force behind the organization.
Manager (Minister)	The individual responsible for executing strategies and managing operations.
Market (Country)	The target audience or market where the business operates.
Infrastructure (Fort)	The physical and organizational structures necessary for the operation of the business.
Finance (Treasury)	The financial resources and economic management of the business.
Team (Army)	The workforce or team members who carry out the business activities.
Mentor (Ally)	The advisors or mentors who provide guidance and support.

*****Niti Shastra, also known as the "science of morality," encompasses teachings and principles that guide individuals on leading a righteous and ethical life. It covers a wide range of subjects, including governance, philosophy, leadership, and human behavior.

Truthfulness is regarded as the cornerstone of ethical conduct and forms the basis of trust and integrity in human relationships.

Another key principle elucidated in Niti Shastra is the virtue of self-discipline and self-control. 

Nītiśāstra (नीतिशास्त्र).—The Nītiśāstra is said to be benificial treatise and generalised science of society. It is a system of morals (social, economics and political). Nītiśāstra gives practical advice as to social well being.

Nītiśāstra (नीतिशास्त्र, “ethics”) is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral values. In the knowledge tradition of India, ethics has its origin in its religious and philosophical thinking. In every religious tradition, good moral conduct is considered essential for a happy and contented life. Without following the path of righteousness no one can attain supreme goal (mokṣa) of life. For this one has to perform good deeds and avoid wrong-doing.

UNIT/MODULE 4: CONTRIBUTIONS TO STEM (SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 

MATHEMATICS )

4.1. Historical development of mathematics and astronomy in India

India is a land where mathematics is coded into everything – from divinity to nature to knowledge to the Vedas and music. Ancient Indian mathematics is popularity known as GANIT.

Indian philosophy has embraced the concept of zero or shunya at one end of the spectrum to anantha, infinity, at the other end. The global spread of theses ideas allowed intellectuals around the world to further develop science.

Albert Einstein once said: “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.”

What are those revolutionary concepts? Bharath Gyan, a passionate research initiative, is painstakingly dotting the pieces together, foraging amongst lost remnants to keep the glorious past alive and known. 

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinen from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, Varāhamihira, and Madhava. 

The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra.

Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student.

The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the Yajurvedasaṃhitā- (1200–900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts. The Satapatha Brahmana (c. 7th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras

The earliest surviving Sanskrit references to mathematical subjects are some number words in the Vedas, ancient sacred texts that were passed down by recitation and memorization. (The oldest surviving Veda manuscript dates from the 16th century.) For example, an invocation in the Yajurveda (“Veda of Sacrifice”) includes names for successive powers of 10 up to about 10 to the power 12.

List of Indian mathematicians from Ancient India:-

1)Katyayana

Born: Around 300 BC

Notable Work: Varttika, Vyakarana, later Sulba Sutras

2)Pingala

born: Around 500 BC

Notable Work: Matrameru, binary numeral system, arithmetical triangle

3)Aryabhata

Born: Between 476-550 CE

Notable works: Aryabhaṭiya, Arya-siddhanta

Notable Ideas: Explanation of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse, rotation of Earth on its axis,

4)Brahmagupta

Born: Between 598–670 CE

Known for: Zero, Modern number system,

 

6) Bhaskara I

Born: Between 600–680 CE

Known for: Sine approximation formula

7)Shridhara

Born: Between 650–850 CE

Contribution: Gave a rule for finding the volume of a sphere

8)Mahavira

Born: 9th century CE

Notable Work: His work is a highly syncopated approach to algebra 

9)Bhaskara II

Born: 1114–1185 CE

Known for: Discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to astronomical problems and computations

10)Narayana Pandit

Born: Between 1340–1400 CE

Notable Work: Arithmetical treatise called Ganita Kaumudi

4.1.**astronomy in India**

Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. That includes objects we can see with our naked eyes, like the Sun , the Moon , the planets, and the stars .

Ancient India's contributions in the field of astronomy are well known and well documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BC. During next 2500 years, by 500 AD, ancient Indian astronomy has emerged as an important part of Indian studies

astrology in ancient India, science of astronomy continued to develop independently, and culminated into original findings, like:

1.The calculation of occurrences of eclipses

2.Determination of Earth's circumference

3.Theorizing about the theory of gravitation

4.Determining that sun was a star and determination of number of planets under our solar system

There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the Vedas. Yadnavalkya (perhaps 1800 BC) advanced a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon.A text on Vedic astronomy that has been dated to 1350 BC, was written by Lagadha.

In 500 AD, Aryabhata presented a mathematical system that took the  earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the sun (in other words it was heliocentric). His book, the Aryabhatya, presented astronomical and mathematical theories in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the sun.

Aryabhata wrote that 1,582,237,500 rotations of the Earth equal 57,753,336 lunar orbits. This is an extremely accurate ratio of a fundamental astronomical ratio (1,582,237,500/57,753,336 = 27.3964693572), and is perhaps the oldest astronomical constant calculated to such accuracy.

Bhaskara (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).

The other important names of historical astronomers from India are Madhava and Nilakantha.

The Rigveda (c1700-1100 BCE), one of Hinduism's primary and foremost texts, contains the first records of sophisticated astronomy in India dating back to at least 2000 BCE.

The ancient Indian astronomers used the stars and planets to create astrological charts and read omens, developing sophisticated mathematical models and many intriguing theories

According to the Rigveda, the Indians divided the year into 360 days, which were then divided into 12 months of 30 days.

The Jyotisa Vedanga, the first Vedic text to mention astronomical data, records events as far back as 4000 BCE, though many archaeo astronomers believe it may include observations as far back as 11 000 BCE.

4.2. Health and Medicinal Practices Introduction to Ayurveda, and lifestyle (Rutucharya, Dincharya , etc.) with reference to Charaka, Sushrut and Vagbhatta

Ancient  Indian health and medicinal practices are inclusively belongs to Ayurved. Ayurveda is also called as 5th veda. Dhanvantari is the god of Ayurved or can be called as the god of Indian health and medical science. Many great receive have contributed in Indian health and medicinal practices such as charak, Sushrut and vagbhatt.

 Ayurveda is a whole-body (holistic) system of medicine that began in India more than 3,000 years ago. Ayurveda means the study of life. It takes a natural approach to all aspects of health and well-being.

Ayurved is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The ancient Indian medical system, also known as Ayurveda, is based on ancient writings that rely on a “natural” and holistic approach to physical and mental health. 

Ayurvedic medicine is one of the world’s oldest medical systems and remains one of India’s traditional health care systems. Ayurvedic treatment combines products (mainly derived from plants, but may also include animal, metal, and mineral), diet, exercise, and lifestyle.

Ayurveda mostly uses nutrition, lifestyle changes, and natural treatments. These are used to support balance and a return to health. Ayurveda is very focused on overall health.

The focus of Ayurveda treatment is to:

1.Support the body in removing toxins and impurities

2.Reduce symptoms

3.Increase disease resistance

4.Reduce stress

5.Create more harmony and balance in life

Herbs and other plants are often used. These include oils and common spices. Ayurvedic treatment is unique for each person. It includes 1 or more of these:

1.Internal cleansing (purification)

2.A special diet, including a wide variety of spices

3.Herbal and plant medicines

4.Massage therapy with different types of oils

5.Yoga

6.Meditation

Introduction:

Ayurveda, often referred to as the "science of life," is an ancient system of medicine that originated in India roughly about 5,000 to 6000 years ago. It is based on the principles of balance and harmony and has stood the test of time as a comprehensive approach to health and wellness.

Ayurveda is based on the concept of the three doshas (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha), panchamahabuta i.e the five elements (earth, water, fire, air, and ether), and the interconnectedness of the body, mind, and spirit. It offers a comprehensive approach to health that includes diet, herbal medicine, lifestyle practices, and therapies to restore and maintain harmony in the body and mind.

Ayurveda has a rich heritage of classical texts, such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, which provide detailed information on diagnosis, treatment, and the principles of this system. It continues to be practiced and respected as a valuable system of medicine and lifestyle in India and around the world. Central to Ayurveda are two key concepts: Dinacharya and Ritucharya. These concepts play a vital role in maintaining a healthy and balanced life

Dinacharya: (Daily Regime)

Dinacharya refers to the daily regimen followed in Ayurveda. The Sanskrit word Dinacharya is defined as "the daily routine". Din means 'daily' and Charya means 'practice or routine. It emphasizes the importance of aligning our daily activities with the natural rhythms of the day. This includes practices like waking up early, cleansing routines, yoga, meditation, and consuming meals at specific times. By following a well-structured daily routine, individuals can maintain physical and mental balance.

The key components of Dinacharya:

1. Waking Early (Brahma Muhurta)–(Vagbhata)

Ayurveda recommends waking up during the Brahma Muhurta, which is the auspicious time about an hour and a half before sunrise. 

2. Tongue Cleaning (Jihwa Prakshalana): A daily routine of tongue scraping is essential to remove toxins and bacteria accumulated in the mouth overnight.

3. Oral Hygiene: Ayurveda suggests using natural ingredients like neem twigs or herbal toothpaste for oral care. 

4. Nasal Cleansing (Nasya): The practice of administering herbal oils or medicated nasal drops helps maintain sinus health and clear any congestion.

5. Oil Massage (ABHYANGA):Abhyanga / OIL massage should be done daily, as it delays ageing, relieves exertion and excess of vata (aches and pains), it improves vision, nourishes body tissues, prolongs age, induces good sleep and improves skin tone and complexion.

6. Hydration: Drinking a glass of warm water, possibly infused with lemon

7. Physical Exercise (Vyayama): Engaging in regular physical activity is essential for maintaining a healthy body

8. Bathing and Cleansing (Snanam): A refreshing bath in clean water, with the use of natural soaps and herbal scrubs

9. Meditation and Pranayama: Spending time in meditation and practicing pranayama (breathing exercises)

10. Balanced Diet (Ahara): Ayurveda places great importance on a balanced diet consisting of fresh, seasonal, and whole foods.

11. Meal Times (Bhojana Samayam): Ayurveda suggests consuming meals twice a day, preferably during specific time intervals, allowing the body to digest food efficiently.

12. Rest (Anidra Nivaranam): Maintaining proper sleep patterns and ensuring adequate rest is vital for overall well-being.

13. Bedtime Routine (Ratri Jagaranam): Before retiring for the night, perform rituals like self-oil massage (Abhyanga) and introspection to unwind and prepare for a peaceful sleep.

14. Sad vritta (good, Healthy conduct): One should always eat, only after digestion of previous food in limited quantity. one should not induce natural urges forcefully.

**Click here to see the PPT of dincharya and Rutucharya as per Ayurvedic :- Ayurveda dincharya rutucharya

**Ritucharya**

Ritucharya, on the other hand, focuses on adapting one's lifestyle and diet according to the changing seasons. Ayurveda recognizes that the body's requirements vary with each season. For instance, in winter, warming foods and practices are recommended, while in summer, cooling strategies are preferred. This seasonal adaptation helps the body cope with environmental changes and remain in harmony.

There occur some special changes in environment and humans in every Ritu and hence certain foods and exercises are specifically told for each Ritu, this process is known as Ritucharya.

Ritu means dva masa or two months. Since, 2 months make one Ritu, we have 6 Ritus as below:

1.Shishira – Late winter

2.vasanta– Spring

3. Grishma – Summer

4. Varsha – Rains

5. Sarad – Autumn

6. Hemanta – Early winter

The first three Ritus are together called as Adana kala (uttarayana – tilt of northern hemisphere of earth away from the sun) and next three together called as visarga kala (dakshinayana – tilt of southern hemisphere of earth away from the sun).

Point 4.3. Ancient Indian techniques and achievements related to metallurgy and material science.

Vedic Metallurgy: Metallurgy in India For over 7000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical skills. India has a great history of metal work, and smelting of metals and deriving alloys.

India also made great strides in using copper, silver, and was one of the first countries to mine gold.

Tools of iron and steel from ancient India were of great demand for many purposes. It is indicated that the first weapons of steel for the people of the Mediterranean came from India.

Many of the ancient Sanskrit texts contain instructions on metal work, such as the building of furnaces as found in the Brihad-vimana-shastram, or bellows, or the making of metal powders or binders or glue, as in the Rasendra-sara-sangrahah, Shilpa-ratnam, and Rasa-ratna-samucchaya, all from the 9th, 11th and 12th centuries CE. 

The Atharva Veda mentions the procedure of production of lead shots or granules . the crude way of atomisation of liquid metals. These lead shots were used like bullets for punishing thieves.

According to Will Durant, Hindus seem to have been the first people to mine gold. Greek visitors like Megasthenese have mentioned this in their records. Much of the gold used in the Persian Empire in the 5th century B.C. came from India. India also mined silver, copper, zinc, led, tin and iron. Indians also knew the techniques for isolation, distillation and use of zinc.

Metullergy techniques

Mining & Ingots

It is extremely rare for any metal to be found in a pure state, and therefore mining pulls up a good deal of additional material as a by-product. The first step in metalworking always involves separating the desired metal from the raw 

By the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was definitely practiced on a large scale.  Smelting. Smelting is the basic process by which one produces workable metal from metal ores.

Cold Hammering

Softer metals, including copper and bronze, can be shaped through cold hammering, especially after they have been smelted to remove impurities. 

Wootz steel is primarily iron with a high proportion of carbon .The basic process consisted in first making  wrought iron. This was packed with wood chips or charcoal in closed crucibles that were heated

Forging (Hot Hammering)

Forging iron, which is much harder than copper, requires that the bloom be reheated until it is red. It is then hammered on an anvil, a process that physically drives out the various impurities

Annealing is the process of reheating cast or hammered metal slowly until it is red hot. This restores its crystalline structure and is necessary after metal has been repeatedly hammered.

Quenching

Quenching, as mentioned above, refers to heating iron (alloyed with carbon) to a high temperature —at least the 725°C threshold where it turns red— and then rapidly cooling it by plunging it into water.

Casting

Fully molten metal can be cast, that is, poured into a mold.

***Material science***

Materials science has shaped the development of civilizations since the dawn of humankind. Better materials for tools and weapons has allowed people to spread and conquer, and advancements in material processing like steel and aluminum production continue to impact society today. Historians have regarded materials as such an important aspect of civilizations such that entire periods of time have defined by the predominant material used (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).

The history of materials science is the study of how different materials were used and developed through the history of Earth and how those materials affected the culture of the peoples of the Earth. The term "Silicon Age" is sometimes used to refer to the modern period of history during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.

Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (processing) influences its structure, and also the material's properties and performance. 

Materials science is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis – investigating materials, products, structures or their components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. 

The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties. 

Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. Materials science examines the structure of material. For example :- micr structure, macro structure, nano structure, atomic structure

Properties of metals :-

Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following.

1Mechanical properties, see Strength of materials

2.Chemical properties, see Chemistry

3.Electrical properties, see Electricity

4.Thermal properties, see Thermodynamics

5.Optical properties, see Optics and Photonics

6.Magnetic properties, see Magnetism

Processing :- developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science. Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods.

****Point 4.4 Ancient Indian Agricultural Practices****

Ancient India boasts a rich agricultural heritage that stretches back thousands of years. This land has witnessed the cultivation of diverse crops and the development of ingenious irrigation techniques.

I. The Dawn of Agriculture in Ancient India

Early Agricultural Practices Ancient Indian agriculture dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization, around 3300–1300 BCE. People in this era practiced rudimentary forms of agriculture, growing crops like wheat, barley, and millets. Archaeological findings reveal evidence of plowing, irrigation canals, and 

well-planned cities that depended on farming for sustenance.

The Vedic Period The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) marked a transition in agricultural practices. The Rigveda, one of the oldest Vedic texts, contains references to plowing, crop cultivation, and the use of tools like plows and sickles. Cattle played a crucial role in agriculture during this period, and rituals associated with agriculture were prevalent.

II. Innovations in Ancient Indian Agriculture

Crop Rotation Ancient Indian farmers practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility. By alternating between different crops in a particular field, they prevented soil depletion and enhanced overall productivity. This sustainable practice is still relevant in modern agriculture.

Iron Plows and Tools The Iron Age brought innovations in farming tools. Iron plows replaced wooden ones, making tilling easier and more efficient. Other iron tools like sickles and hoes further improved agricultural productivity.

III. Ancient Indian Crops

 Wheat and Barley Wheat and barley were staple crops in ancient India. Rice Rice was another crucial crop in ancient India, especially in the southern regions . Millets Millets, such as finger millet (ragi) and pearl millet (bajra), were grown in various parts of India.

IV. Irrigation Systems

 Wells and Stepwells Ancient Indians developed intricate well systems to access groundwater. 

Canals and Dams The construction of canals and dams was a hallmark of ancient Indian agriculture. The Indus Valley Civilization, for instance, had a network of canals for irrigation. 

Tank Irrigation Tanks or artificial reservoirs were created to store rainwater.